Carbon footprint of drinking water softening as determined by life cycle assessment

In the Netherlands, central softening of drinking water is widely applied for reasons public health, client comfort, economic and environmental benefits. Currently, detrimental contributions softening, in particular use chemicals energy, are taken into account carbon footprint Dutch companies. The beneficial have, however, until now not been included footprint. Here, we present an attributional life cycle assessment (LCA) water, including effects at household level several sensitivity analyses. Five methods were (pellet reactor (PR), storage reservoir (WSR), reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF) ion exchange (IEX)). Domestic by IEX represented as well. Central except RO, shown to reduce when included. main caused consumption energy process. softened with respect level. Decreases hardness result reduced scaling give rise a prolonged lifespan appliances which heated, those less required cleaning agents. For PR WSR new effect was identified; capture crystallized calcite dissolution CO2 water. We show that companies Evides Waternet approximately 20% 60%, respectively, their total compensated net benefit softening. Netherlands estimated be −0.11 Mtonne eq./yr.